Cervantes and Shakespeare Same Era, Different Tales

In one of those coincidences of history, two of the Western worlds leading authors — William Shakespeare and Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra — died on April 23, 1616 (more on that soon). But thats not all they had in common, for each was a pioneer in his field and had a long-lasting influence on his language. Heres a quick look at the ways in which these two writers were similar and different. Vital Statistics Keeping records of birth dates wasnt nearly as important in 16th-century Europe as it is today, and therefore we dont know with certainty the exact date when Shakespeare or Cervantes was born. We do know, however, that Cervantes was the older of the two, having been born in 1547 in Alcalà ¡ de Henares, near Madrid. His birth date is usually given as Sept. 19, the day of San Miguel. Shakespeare was born on a spring day in 1564, presumably in Stratford-upon-Avon. His baptism date was April 26, so he probably was born a few days before then, possibly on the 23rd. While the two men shared a date of death, they didnt die on the same day. Spain was using the Gregorian calendar (the one in nearly universal use today), while England was still using the old Julian calendar. So Cervantes in fact died 10 days ahead of Shakespeare. Contrasting Lives Its safe to say that Cervantes had the more eventful life. He was born to a deaf surgeon who struggled to find lasting work in a field that was low-paying at the time.  In his 20s, Cervantes joined the Spanish military and was seriously injured in the Battle of Lepanto, receiving chest injuries and a damaged hand. As he was returning to Spain in 1575, he and his brother Rodrigo were captured by Turkish pirates and subjected to forced labor. He remained in custody for five years despite repeated attempts to flee. Eventually, Cervantes family drained its resources in paying ransom to liberate him. After attempting and failing to make a living as a playwright (only two of his plays survive), he took a job with the Spanish Armada and ended up being accused of graft and jailed. He was once even accused of murder. Cervantes finally achieved fame after publishing the first part of the novel El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha in 1605. The work is usually described as the first modern novel, and it was translated to dozens of other languages. He published the remainder of the work a decade later and also wrote other less well-known novels and poems. He did not become wealthy, however, as author royalties were not the norm at the time. In contrast with Cervantes, Shakespeare was born into a wealthy family and grew up in the market town of Stratford-upon-Avon. He made his way to London and was apparently making a living as an actor and playwright in his 20s. By 1597, he had published 15 of his plays, and two years later he and business partners built and opened the Globe Theatre. His financial success gave him more time to write plays, which he continued to do until his early death at age 52. Influences on Language Living languages always evolve, but fortunately for us, both Shakespeare and Cervantes were authors recently enough that most of what they wrote remains understandable today despite changes in grammar and vocabulary during the intervening centuries. Shakespeare undoubtedly had a greater influence in changing the English language, thanks to his flexibility with parts of speech, freely using nouns as adjectives or verbs, for example. He is also known to have drawn from other languages such as Greek when it was useful. Although we dont know how many words he coined, Shakespeare is responsible for the first recorded use of around 1,000 words. Among the lasting changes he is partly responsible for is the popular use of un- as a prefix to mean not. Among the words or phrases we know first from Shakespeare are one fell swoop, swagger, odds (in the betting sense), full circle, puke (vomit), unfriend (used as a noun to refer to an enemy). and hazel (as a color). Cervantes isnt known so much for enriching Spanish vocabulary as he is for using sayings or phrases (not necessarily original with him) that have endured and even become parts of other languages. Among those that have become part of English are tilting at windmills, the pot calling the kettle black (although in the original a frying pan does the talking), and the skys the limit. So widely known became Cervantes pioneering novel that Don Quijote became the source of the English adjective quixotic. (Quixote is an alternative spelling of the title character.) The Spanish equivalent is quijotesco, although it more often refers to personality than does the English word. Both men became closely associated with their languages. English is frequently referred to as the language of Shakespeare (although the term is often used to refer specifically to how it was spoken in his era), while Spanish is often called the language of Cervantes, which has changed less since his era than English has. Did Shakespeare and Cervantes Ever Meet? As so whether the two playwrights crossed paths, the quick answer is not that we know of, but its possible. After twins were born to Shakespeare and his wife, Anne Hathaway, in 1585, there are seven nonconsecutive lost years of his life for which we have no record. Although most speculation assumes that he spent his time in London perfecting his craft, fans have speculated that Shakespeare traveled to Madrid and became personally acquainted with Cervantes. Although we have no evidence of that, we do know that that one play that Shakespeare may have written, The History of Cardenio, is based on one of Cervantes characters in Don Quijote. However, Shakespeare would not have needed to travel to Spain to become familiar with the novel. That play no longer exists. Because we know little about the educations that Shakespeare and Cervantes received, there also has been speculation that neither wrote the works attributed to him. A few conspiracy theorists have even proposed that Shakespeare was the author of Cervantes works and/or vice versa — or that a third party, such as Francis Bacon, was the author of both their works. Such wild theories, especially regarding Don Quijote, seem far-fetched, as Don Quijote is steeped in Spains culture of the time in a way that a foreigner would have found difficult to convey. Key Takeaways Noted writers William Shakespeare of England and Miguel de Cervantes of Spain lived at the same time—they died on the same calendar date—but Cervantes was born about 17 years earlier.Both men had an enormous influence on their respective languages.It is unknown if the two men ever met, but missing years in Shakespeares life makes that a possibility.

Foundation of Nursing - 1103 Words

1. Nursing It is assisting the individuals, sick or well in the performance of those activities contributing to health or its recovery (or to peaceful death) that he would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or knowledge (Virginia Henderson) 2. Art A superior skill that you can learn by study, practice and observation. 3. Science The ability to produce solutions in some problem domain. 4. Other disciplines that are related to nursing and how they contribute to nursing: i) Medicine- Doctors consult patients and order investigations to be performed on a patient as well as prescribe medicine for the patient. They give instructions as to how the patient has to be nursed for example†¦show more content†¦A profession implies professed attainments in special knowledge as distinguished from mere skill (Century Dictionary); nursing is an honorable calling, nothing further, implying proficiency in certain more or less mechanical duties; it is not primarily designed to contribute to the sum of human knowledge or the advancement of science. The great and principal duty of a nurse is to make a patient comfortable in bed, something not always attained by the most bookish of nurses. Any intelligent, not necessarily educated woman can, in short time, acquire the skills to carry out with implicit obedience the physician’s directions.† It is against this background that the writer seeks to establish whether nursing is a profession or not. Nursing is a profession; looking at the definition of a profession Nursing does qualify to one. One has to be trained theoretically and should acquire the necessary practical skills before qualifying to be a nurse. Nursing has various specialized areas such as Operating Theatre, Intensive Care, Medical, Surgical, Ophthalmic Nursing etc. After attaining Basic Nursing Training one can choose to specialize in some of the specialized areas. Nursing requires a person to be capable of doing many tasks and having compassion and dedication for the profession. Nursing is a career that is ever changing and enlarging its field of knowledge. Nurses deal with matters ofShow MoreRelatedThe Foundation And Provision Of Nursing1316 Words   |  6 PagesThe foundation and provision of nursing care is guided by key values of nursing and definitions of nursing. The American Association of Colleges of Nursing [AACN] (2008) highlights five values that represent the core of nursing practice. These values include altruism, autonomy, human dignity, integrity, and social justice. 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Downtown Beirut, Response on Mohsens Article free essay sample

Downtown Beirut: a spot pour les bourgeois In his article Downtown Beirut: A City of Ghosts? , published in the Alakhbar English journal on Saturday, January 7 2012, Ahmed Mohsen describes the heart of Beirut as an empty, fake, artificial hanging spot for the elite, so distant and alienated from the culture and the civilization of the good old Beirut known for its diversity among different social classes.Mohsen considers rebuilding the capital after the traumatizing war have indeed its true identity and covered its alleys with fake architecture that destroyed the historical beauty of what once was known as the Paris of the Middle East. For many, whats known today as Solidere , projects the new post war era, the era of a flourishing economy and an original society. In fact, the new buildings are indeed nothing more than an overpriced imitation of other countries architecture leaving the old Beirut and its rich Middle Eastern history nothing more than a memory along with its social tr aditions. We will write a custom essay sample on Downtown Beirut, Response on Mohsens Article or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Mohsen pointed out in his article that after rebuilding the center of the capital, the original citizens in Wadi Abu Jamil and its surroundings are no longer there. According to the authors article Wadi Abu Jamils original residents and owners have vanished. (Page #120) I personally believe that the old Beirut with its old, wrecked buildings and crowded dirty alleys is a unique haven of coexistence between the various religious sects and the different social classes unlike the new Down Town or DT with its new original buildings inhabited by only one social class.The High class. The reconstruction of Beirut put money and artificial beauty over the unity of the classes and the unity of the different peoples that lived for centuries in Lebanon and their reunification after the devastating war. In his article, the author criticized the fact that only rich people can shop or hang out in the DT saying For those who can afford it, the place to shop in downtown is Beirut souks. (Page # 119). In fact, all the shops present in downtown are indeed expensive for the average citizen.But the problem is that even the most basic things in a small shop are much more expensive than any other place in the country. Buying a simple cone of ice cream will cost you something around 2000 L. L in Lebanon, but buying it from downtown will cost you about 7000 L. L. All the artificial beauty that is supposed to encourage the Lebanese around the world to go back to their country is in fact, a repulsive, ugly place reserved for the elite and rich tourists from neighboring Arabic countries.

Thriving Under Pressure Essay Example For Students

Thriving Under Pressure Essay Life has many ways of testing a persons will, either by having nothing happen to them or by having everything happen to them at once. Life does this, in order to separate the tough from the weak. Some people shy away when an obstacle occurs, some people thrive. When the going gets tough, the tough get going is a proverb that describes these people. I am considered as a tough guy in my hockey, my schooling and in my personal life. To begin, perseverance is essential in my hockey life; I force myself to overcome the obstacles that lay before me. J. We will write a custom essay on Thriving Under Pressure specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Sidlow Baxter once said What is the difference between an obstacle and an opportunity? Its our attitude toward it. Every opportunity has a difficulty, and every difficulty has an opportunity. For example, during my game where we are losing, I can sink to everyones level or I may rise to the occasion, I must continue to thrive. As captain, and a leader on the team I am obligated to lead my team when my teammates are down on themselves. I have the responsibility to lead us to victory. Secondly, to achieve all hockey players dream to make the National Hockey League you must frequently train, outwork your peers and push your limits. Sometimes there are road blocks on the path to success, such as an injury. Last season I was diagnosed with a concussion which delayed my training by three months. However, instead of giving up, I worked even harder to catch up with my peers. Lastly the tough gets going after a long training session at practice. The tough continues to give his hundred percent when the drills get harder and he gets tired. This is how you improve, every time I get tired I tell myself that you only get what you put in  . In my hockey life I am considered as the tough one that gets things going. Secondly, overcoming obstacles is something that we all need to do as humans. While most people give up, I on the other hand keep working harder. Dale Carnegie once said Most of the important things in the world have been accomplished by people who have kept on trying when there seemed to be no hope at all . To me this means that nothing good in life comes easy. In school for instance, you have to stay focused and work harder when you think you cant do it. When I am pressed for time, I manage to work efficiently, to not stress, to maintain my focus and to get the work done. Another example where I demonstrated mental toughness is that while I was falling behind and did not understand the lessons, rather than giving up, I bore down, asked for help and figure a solution whether it was to stay after school or get my brother to help me. The one thing you cannot do is give up. Lastly, at one point I was failing, I was letting my personal life interfere with my work. I had forgotten the importance of school. I had sat down; evaluated myself and promised that changes would be made. Moving forward more focus would be given to my academics, and I would stop dwelling on the past. I always find a solution at school when it seems there is no hope. Finally, life at times could seem like a jerk; always pushing you down trying to get you upset. Martin Luther King, Jr said The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort and convenience, but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy.   These times of controversy and challenge appear often in my relationships. .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca , .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .postImageUrl , .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca , .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca:hover , .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca:visited , .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca:active { border:0!important; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca:active , .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u2facaf3a4f7c1292967aec752d077aca:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Scarlet Ibis EssayAs the saying goes a relationships is like a rollercoaster, they have their ups and downs   I have endured many downs, such as breakups, fights, even the silliest things such as rumors. All of these required work, and its needed most when you think its over, work that I often do. I also encounter these tough times in my life at home. My family and I get into many tough times when it comes to money. We as a family work harder to save money cut spending costs and avoid future obstacles. Its during hard times that you need to work the hardest. This happens in all of my day to day business. From chores to homework, working out, cooking. Everything in life, everything needs to be finished, you cannot procrastinate. Because of my attitude I accomplish things that most people would not be able to accomplish when faced with similar obstacles. I am tough when things get tough. In conclusion, my attitude towards problems is easily explained by the saying when the going gets tough the tough gets going , because I thrive under pressure and always manage to overcome the obstacles that life gives me in my hockey, my schooling and in my personal life.

Critical Thinking Essay Example

Critical Thinking Essay Abrahem Helal University of Maryland University College DMBA 610 / Section 9045 / Individual Research Paper 1 Critical Thinking This paper, examination, report, or the section thereof for which I have indicated responsibility, is my own work. Any assistance I received in its preparation is acknowledged within the report or examination, in accordance with academic practice. For any data, ideas, words, diagrams, pictures, or other information from any source, quoted or not, I have cited the sources fully and completely in footnotes and bibliographical entries, as required. Furthermore, I certify that the material was prepared by me specifically for this class and has not been submitted, in whole or significant part, to any other class in this university or elsewhere, or used for any purpose other than satisfying the requirements of this class, except that I am allowed to submit this material to a professional publication, peer reviewed journal, or professional conference. In adding my name following the word Signature, I intend that this certification will have the same authority and authenticity as a document executed with my hand-written signature. SignatureAbrahem HelalDateFebruary 17, 2013 Table of Contents Introduction3 Step 1: What are the issue and conclusions? 3 Step 2: What are the reasons? 4 Step 3: What words or phrases are ambiguous? 5 Step 4: What are the value and descriptive assumptions and conflicts? 7 Step 5: Are there any fallacies in the reasoning? 8 Step 6: How good is the evidence? 9 Step 7: Are there any rival causes? 10 Step 8: A re the statistics deceptive? 11 Step 9: What significant information has been omitted? 2 Step 10: What reasonable conclusions are possible? 13 References14 Introduction The purpose of this paper is to apply each of the steps of the critical thinking model developed by (Browne Keeley, 2012) to assess the arguments presented in a memo prepared by Ms. Mary Ford (personal communication, January 30, 2012), hereafter referred to as â€Å"the memo†, who is the Director of the Amalgamated Public Employees Union (APEU) Local No. 121 to Mr. We will write a custom essay sample on Critical Thinking specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Critical Thinking specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Critical Thinking specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Hector Fuentes, the President of APEU Local No. 121, contesting a memo drafted by New Mexico Governor Gloria Gainor (personal communication, October 20, 2011) informing the APEU Local No. 121 of the intent to outsource and privatize the New Mexico Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) information systems management function. Step 1: What are the issue and conclusions? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 2) Issue:In the memo the issue described is of a prescriptive nature. It is one that is â€Å"ethical or moral in nature and raises questions about what is right and wrong, desirable or undesirable, good or bad† (Browne Keeley, 2012, p. 20). Specifically the issue is should Governor Gainor proceed with the proposed outsourcing and privatization of the New Mexico DMV information systems management function which would potentially adversely affect state employees, 43 of whom are members of APEU Local No. 121. Conclusion:In the memo Ms. Ford concludes that the APEU Local No. 21 should rebut the Governor’s proposed privatization of the DMV information systems management function â€Å"as an unfair management practice† that will lead to APEU members losing their jobs in a manner which â€Å"violates the principles of the Pendleton Act of 1883 â€Å"which stipulates that government jobs be awarded on the basis of merit and made it illegal to arbitrarily and capriciously fire or demote government employees† (Milestone Documents, n. d. ) Step 2: What are the reasons? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 3) According to Browne Keeley, â€Å"the worth of a conclusion cannot be determined until the reasons behind the opinion are identified. Reasons are explanations or rationales for why a conclusion should be believed† (Browne Keeley, 2012, pp. 29-30). In the memo Ms. Ford gives the following reasons to rationalize her conclusion. 1) The proposed outsourcing and privatization of the DMV information systems management function is â€Å"anti-American and an assault on APEU Local No. 121 members†. ) The proposed privatization will â€Å"set the stage for state government to decrease employee wages in the future† because foreign companies will vie for this privatization and accept wages lower than APEU Local 121 members. 3) Outsourcing public services to the private corporations is not good for the economy, leads to instability, and only serves to benefit corporations who are only concerned with turning a profit. â€Å"If corporate greed isn’t satisfied, the com panies will pull out leaving the public high and dry†. ) Outsourcing and privatization are the cause of the current recession and the proposed privatization will only exasperate unemployment in New Mexico. 5) Permitting the proposed privatization will result in the same thing happening in other departments leading to further disbursement of union members and diminished union strength. 6) The proposed privatization is nothing more than the Governor â€Å"attempting to demonstrate that management controls the union and to force out older experienced workers†. ) Privatization of public sector responsibilities will result in â€Å"the state losing control of its information systems and citizen data will be compromised†. 8) Outsourcing doesn’t save money, as the Governor has suggested. â€Å"Costs associated with overseeing third-party contractors adds 20% of hidden costs to the price of each outsourced government contract†. 9) Customer service will suff er as a result of outsourcing to foreign companies. â€Å"There will inevitably be communication and culture clash issues which will only further costs†. 0) Privatization and outsourcing violates the Pendleton Act of 1883 which was â€Å"established to protect government employees from illegal termination or demotion† (Wikipedia, n. d. , p. 1). Step 3: What words or phrases are ambiguous? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 4) According to Browne Keeley, â€Å"ambiguity refers to the existence of multiple possible meanings for a word or phrase† (Browne Keeley, 2012, p. 41). Ambiguity results whenever a word or a phrase can have more than one distinct and valid meaning and can usually be eliminated through extra information. In the memo there are several ambiguous words and phrases that require further explanation. 1) The Governor states that privatization will result in â€Å"approximately† $250,000. 00 per year in budgeted personnel costs. What does approximately mean? Is it plus or minus $5,000. 00, $10,000. 00, $50,000. 00? The word approximately does not give a clear picture of the projected savings. 2) The Governor promises union members will be offered â€Å"similar positions† in other departments as they arise through attrition. What does the Governor actually mean by similar positions? The word similar can be interpreted in many different ways and requires further clarification. 3) Ms. Ford states that privatization is an â€Å"assault† on our union and â€Å"anti-American†. Both assault and anti-American are easily interpreted in various ways depending on the reader. Assault can mean unlawful or violent act. Following the word assault up with anti-American gives it a little more clarity in the context of this memo, however anti-American can mean many different things as well. 4) Ms. Ford states that privatization will lead to â€Å"decreased† employee wages. While any decrease isn’t desirable, a slight / small decrease may be tolerable. As such the word decreased requires further clarification. 5) Ms. Ford states that she had lunch the other day with a â€Å"group† of union members and â€Å"everyone† was in agreement. What was the size of the group and who is everyone? Is everyone those that she went to lunch with and if so just how many people is that? Or is everyone all the members of APEU Local 121. Everyone is a vague term to describe a group of people and requires further clarification. 6) Ms. Ford states that New Mexico will â€Å"lose control† of information systems and data will be compromised. The phrase lose control has a loose interpretation. In many instances where public information is managed by private entities that information is solely the property of the government. Her use of the phrase lose control implies that the government will no longer have any claim or oversight to the public information being managed by the private companies. Step 4: What are the value and descriptive assumptions and conflicts? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 5) Assessing value and descriptive assumptions serves to identify hidden assumptions specified to justify a conclusion. Browne Keeley define a value assumption as â€Å"an implicit preference for one value over another in a particular context. Value assumptions are beliefs about how the world should be† (Browne Keeley, 2012, p. 59). Browne Keeley go on to define descriptive assumptions as â€Å"beliefs about the way the world was, is, or will be† (Browne Keeley, 2012, p. 65). In the context of the memo there are several value and descriptive assumptions. To begin with Ms. Ford states that that the proposed privatization is an assault on the union as well as anti-American. As a union member herself, Ms. Ford is partial to the union and has a clear interest in protecting union jobs. Her opinion is subjective and not a proven fact. It is an arguable assumption about the way the world is. In fact â€Å"the real issue is not so much public vs. private, it is monopoly vs. competition. A key issue in the trend towards privatization is the introduction of competition (e. g. , public-public competition, public-private competition, competition between public-private ventures, public-nonprofit competition) to increase efficiency, reduce costs, and improve quality and customer satisfaction† (Nightingale Pindus, 1997). Ms. Ford goes on to assert that based on her personal experience and those of her brother-in-law, who was downsized out of a job, this pattern of privatization, if not stopped, will continue and will further exasperate the existing recession. She goes on to allege that there will not be ample replacement jobs and that union members will be forced to accept lower wages due to increased competition. These are assumptions which demonstrate the way she believes the world will be. Step 5: Are there any fallacies in the reasoning? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 6) Browne Keeley define a fallacy â€Å"as a reasoning trick used as a mechanism for persuasion. It is an attack or insult used as an argument rather than directly addressing the reasoning in a comment† (Browne Keeley, 2012, pp. 74-75). In the context of the memo the most obvious fallacy is Ms. Ford emotionally referring to Governor Gainor as a bully, an ad hominem fallacy described by Browne Keeley as â€Å"against the man or against the person. It is attacking the messenger, in this case the Governor, instead of addressing the message. † (Browne keeley, 2012, pp. 75). Throughout the entire memo Ms. Ford uses glittering generality words such as â€Å"anti-American† and â€Å"instability† which are both vague and emotionally charged in attempt to gain support. The use of glittering generality words such as these do not support her argument and only serve as an attempt to exhort an emotional reaction by diverting attention from the issue. Other fallacies employed by Ms. Ford include the slippery slope fallacy. Ms. Ford declares that if the proposed privatization is allowed to happen then this pattern will continue on into other departments and will heighten an existing recession. This is an assertion on her part that the proposed privatization will â€Å"set off an uncontrollable chain of undesirable events† (Browne Keeley, 2012, p. 77). Finally, Ms. Ford concludes her argument with affirmatory statements such as â€Å"our members will lose their jobs to gain marginal efficiencies† and â€Å"violates the merit principle enshrined in the Pendleton Act of 1883†. These are arguments in which â€Å"the conclusion is assumed in the reasoning, or rather, begging the question fallacy† (Brown Keeley, 2012, p. 85). Step 6: How good is the evidence? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapters 7 8) Browne Keeley state that critical thinking requires evaluation of the evidence provided and in doing so one must ask what is the proof, where is the evidence and how reliable is it? In the memo Ms. Ford inserts the personal experience of her brother-in-law, who was downsized in a different state and remains unemployed, as proof the proposed privatization will result in the same for her and other APEU Local No. 121 union members. However she fails to provide any evidence of why her brother-in-law was downsized or the reasons for which he remains unemployed. She makes the hasty generalization that because this happened to her brother-in-law it will happen to the members of APEU Local No. 121 and continue on from there. Further Ms. Ford attempts to engage the Pendleton Act of 1883 as an argument against the proposed privatization stating that it is â€Å"unfair and in violation† of the act. However she omits any explanation of the Pendleton Act which stipulates that â€Å"government jobs should be awarded on the basis of merit. It provided for selection of government employees through competitive examinations. It also made it unlawful to fire or demote covered employees for political reasons or to require them to give political service or payment† (Digital History, 2012). In no place does the Pendleton Act state that public service employees cannot be downsized or moved to other departments or positions in pursuit of increased efficiencies. Further, Ms. Ford asserts that the proposed outsourcing will be awarded to a foreign firm. She provides absolutely no evidence that this will happen and in fact makes a rash assumption that has no merit. Finally, Ms. Ford makes a final and concluding emotional plea to Union President Hector Fuentes stating that the proposed privatization is unjust and will result in the loss of jobs. In doing so she is attempting to persuade Mr. Fuentes to follow is heart and intuition. Step 7: Are there any rival causes? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 9) Browne Keeley define a rival cause as â€Å"a plausible alternative explanation that can explain why a certain outcome will or has occurred† (Browne Keeley, 2012, p. 128). In the context of the memo, Ms. Ford states that the proposed privatization will lead to union workers having to accept lower wages as â€Å"foreign agents will bid for the contract and accept lower wages than union members receive†. She continues on to declare that if this is not stopped it will lead to the same thing happening in other departments with the government continuing to both downsize union employees and drive down wages in the future. This is a post hoc fallacy in that she is assuming this will happen simply because of this single privatization proposal by Governor Gainor. Her statements are a casual oversimplification where she â€Å"relies on factors that are insufficient to substantiate her conclusions† (Browne keeley, 2012, p. 131). Ms. Ford goes on to say that the proposed privatization will lead to â€Å"communication and culture clash problems† resulting in diminished customer service. Again, this is a baseless casual oversimplification and lacks merit. Finally, Ms. Ford implores Mr. Fuentes â€Å"not to give in to the Governor’s proposal as the government will not respect APEU Local No. 121 power in future negotiations of any kind†. In doing so one must ask what her true objective is. Is it to protect union jobs or to maintain a fighting position with government? Step 8: Are the statistics deceptive? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 10) Browne Keeley state that â€Å"statistics can and often lie. They do not necessarily prove what they appear to prove. One must ask are the statistics deceptive† (Browne Keeley, 2012, p. 142)? In the context of the memo Ms. Ford gives two distinct figures and fails to provide any supporting evidence that they are indeed factual. First she states that â€Å"according to her brother-in-law, management uses the promise of rehire to gain union support for outsourcing and 80% of the time they don’t keep their promise†. This statistic was a figure she was given by her unemployed relative that was recently downsized and is likely an exaggerated figure that has not been scrutinized. She goes on to state that privatization â€Å"does not save money and that according to a recent Wall Street newspaper, the additional costs of overseeing third-party contractors adds 20% of hidden costs to the price of each government outsourcing contract†. Once again one must ask which â€Å"recent† Wall Street newspaper did this statistic come from and what other supporting sources are there to supplement this figure. Finally, Ms. Ford states that she went to lunch with a group of union members and that â€Å"everyone was in agreement†. In doing so she attempts to imply that the union as a whole is in agreement and will support the re-election of Mr. Fuentes. However, she fails to state the size of the group she had lunch with. A group can be as few as two people. Her failure to give specifics on the group diminishes from her alleging that all union members were in agreement. Step 9: What significant information has been omitted? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 11) Browne Keeley state that â€Å"significant omitted information is information that shapes the reasoning. Arguments often attempt to deceive and the arguer often will have different values, beliefs, and attitudes† (Browne Keeley, 2012, pp. 153-154). Omitted information can alter a conclusion and thus it is essential to recognize when relevant information has been omitted. In the context of the memo both Governor Gainor and Ms. Ford omit relevant information. Governor Gainor states that the proposed privatization will save the state approximately $250,000. 00 per year in budgeted annual personnel costs and that those who lose their positions as a result will be moved to other similar positions as vacancies arise through attrition. Governor Gainor fails to explain what the other similar positions are and how they will be filled as vacancies arise since the term attrition literally means a reduction in size. Her statement is conflicting and lacks meaningful information that could alter the conclusion. In making her argument Ms. Ford leaves out an array of relevant information in blaming outsourcing as the cause of the current recession. She provides absolutely no evidence to substantiate this clam and inserts the under detailed personal experience of her brother-in-law to establish her case. Further Ms. Ford includes several statistics in an attempt to make the case against privatization. First she states that according to her brother-in-law, 80% management does not keep their promise for rehire. Next she states that there are an additional 20% in hidden costs when outsourcing public service jobs. In presenting both statistics Ms. Ford fails to provide any supporting information to confirm these figures. Finally, Ms. Ford concluded her argument by stating the Governor should abandon the wasteful convention center project. At no point does she provide any reinforcing information to show the convention center project is indeed wasteful. Instead it appears to be a comment based on personal and biased opinion. Step 10: What reasonable conclusions are possible? (Browne Keeley, 2012, Chapter 12) Browne Keeley place significant emphasis on â€Å"qualifying conclusions by putting them into context† (Browne Keeley, 2012, p. 164). In other words it is important to understand the reasons to draw the conclusions. Having read and scrutinized the memo the following is a short list of conclusions that can be gleaned along with what can be drawn from supporting reasons: 1) The state of New Mexico could potentially save $250,000. 00 per year in budgeted personnel costs but will first need to work closely with APEU Local No. 121 members to give them a clear understanding of their future employment and compensation prospects. 2) There are hidden costs associated with outsourcing that need to be considered and may make privatization an unviable option. ) Outsourcing the information systems management function of the New Mexico DMV poses security risks that must be explored. These security risks and associated hidden costs of third party oversight may make privatization unpractical. 4) There are other public projects that can be looked at for state budgetary savings. However, APEU Local No. 121 members must realize that other projects likely employ other union members and cuts to those projects will affect unrelated employees. References Browne, M. N. , Keeley, S. M. (2012). Asking the right questions (10th ed. ). Pearson Education, Inc. Digital History. (2012). The pendleton act (1883). Retrieved from http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/disp_textbook. cfm? smtID=3psid=1098 Milestone Documents. (n. d. ). Pendleton civil service act. Retrieved from http://www. milestonedocuments. com/documents/view/pendleton-civil-service-act Nightingale, D. , Pindus, N. (1997). Privatization of public social services: a background paper. Retrieved from http://www. urban. org/publications/407023. html Wikipedia. (n. d. ). Pendleton civil reform act. Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act Critical Thinking Essay Example Critical Thinking Essay Prerequisite: none Course Description: English languages skills for critical reading from different sources and media and effective writing on topics of students’ interests. Course Objectives: Students will be able to 1. analyze and synthesize information 2. write effectively Course Contents:No. f Lect. HoursSelf-Study 1. Introduction1. 5 2. Unit 1 Critical Reading4. 5 3. Unit 2 Bridge to Critical Thinking4. 5 4. Unit 3 Effective Writing7. 5 5. Unit 4 Weighing It Out9 6. Unit 5 Looking for a Reason9 7. Unit 6 Finding a Way Out9 8. Self-Study 90 Total45Course Evaluations: 1. Attendance10 % (Take off 1 point for each absence. Only 15 minutes-late is allowed, Otherwise 0. 5 point is deducted. ) 2. Writing (In-class writing)30 % 2. 1 In-Class Writing I : Summary 6 % . 2 In-Class Writing II : Is it the same? 8 % 2. 3 In-Class Writing III : It’s time to debate. 8 % 2. 4 In-Class Writing IV : It’s time to find the way out. 8 % 3. Midterm Exam30 % 4. Final Exam30 % Total 100 % Class Attendance Notice: No in-class writing make up unless a medical report from Maharaj Hospital is presented or the course coordinators of English 201 allows the make up. Students whose absence is 7 classes will not be allowed to go for the final examination.

The character of Alison in The Millers Tale Essays

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Creatine Supplementation Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks Biology Essay Creatine is a nitrogen based organic compound that is naturally synthesised in the body by the kidney, liver and pancreas. Over the past 2 decades creatine, usually in the form of creatine monohydrate, has become one of the most popular ergogenic aids used by amateur and professional athletes alike. A 2001 study involving over 600 high school students completing who completed surveys regarding the use of creatine. Over 75% of students had knowledge of creatine and its uses, 16% of whom admitted to using creatine as an ergogenic aid to improve athletic performance (Tracy et al,2001). Creatine combines with a phosphate to form phosphocreatine which is a vital way in which cells are able to store energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This is via the reversible creatine kinase reaction, so called as it is catalysed by the enzyme creatine kinase (Sweeney, 1994). Creatine monohydrate supplements are most beneficial in short duration, high intensity exercises lasting less than 30 seconds. The phosphocreatine is broken down to its constituent elements and ATP is resynthesised allowing for improved muscular performance. Taking creatine as a sports supplement is beneficial because it increases the total amount of phosphocreatine stored in resting muscle cells allowing for greater ATP resynthesis in intense activities. As well as being a commonly used sports supplement creatine is a widely researched compound due to its potential benefits in various areas of medicine. Studies have suggested that creatine may provide neuroprotective benefits, often via a similar mechanism, by delaying the onset of motor symptoms and improving survival rates in conditions such as Huntingtons disease and Parkinsons disease (Wyss and Schulze, 2002). Creatine has also proven its benefits in other neuromuscular diseases where muscular dystrophy is common by improving strength of muscular contractions in key muscles used in everyday exercises such as walking and lifting (Kreider, 1 998) . Some research has led scientists to believe that creatine plays a role in atherosclerotic protection against cardiovascular based conditions (Wyss and Schulze, 2002). This might be caused by oral creatine supplementation decreasing levels of the amino acid homocysteine in the blood plasma. Homocysteine is a commonly known risk factor for atherosclerotic disease so this may be the reason creatine can offer atherosclerotic protection. There are risks associated with using creatine as a supplement which could be as minor as trouble with acne or muscular cramping to renal dysfunction or even failure. This is a controversial area with opinions often split on whether creatine does cause renal disorders as there are many studies done concluding opposing outcomes. Further research needs to be done into this area to fully assess the risk factor for using creatine as many of the studies have been relatively short term in their nature. What is creatine? Creatine is a nitrogen based organic compound that is most commonly associated with sports supplementation. It is believed to have been first identified by a French chemist named Michel Eugene Chevreul in 1835 (Hultman et al,1996). Chevreul was able to identify the presence of creatine in a meat extract. The compound is not generally regarded a protein but is made up of 3 amino acids and consists of 32% nitrogen (Poortmans and Francaux, 1999). The chemical structure of creatine can be seen in Figure 1. Figure 1 Chemical Structure of Creatine The figure shows the chemical structure of creatine. The molecular formula of creatine is C4H9N3O2. The amino acids found in creatine are arginine, glycine and methinione. Over the past twenty years creatine has become one of the most popular ergogenic aids taken in the world of sport . An ergogenic aid is defined as any means of enhancing energy utilisation, including energy production, control and efficiency (Silver,2001). It is now known that increasing the amount of dietary creatine available leads to an increase in total muscle creatine [TCr]. As well as this, there is also evidence that both total intramuscular creatine increases levels rise as well as levels of phosphocreatine [PCr] (Martini,2006). During intense exercise phosphocreatine is broken down to creatine and inorganic phosphate (combines with ADP to form ATP) which is the fastest source for the re-synthesis of ATP molecules during the first 10 seconds of high intensity exercise (Mougois,2006). As intense exercise continues and phosphocreatine stores become depleted, ATP is not resynthesised at the same rate and performance levels drop. This is where evidence suggests that creatine can help to increase performance by delaying the inevitable depletion of phosphocreatine stores. Creatine, as a sports supplement, has only been shown to be beneficial during such short duration exercises. These range from sprinting to power lifting so an array of athletes take advantage of the compound including sprinters, rugby players and weight lifters. Creatine is synthesised naturally in the body but only at a rate of 1 to 2 grams per day (McArdle, 2009). This takes place primarily in the liver, pancreas and kidneys. It is therefore im portant to eat foods rich in creatine as part of a healthy, balanced diet. Such foods include poultry and fish which contain around 5g of creatine per kg of food weight (McArdle, 2006). Approximately half of the creatine used by the body is replaced through the diet with the other half replaced via endogenous synthesis. Approximately 95% of stored creatine is found in skeletal muscle (Spillane et al,2009). As only meat foods contain creatine it is often difficult for vegetarians to obtain ample exogenous creatine via the diet. As a sports supplement, creatine is usually taken in the form of creatine monohydrate (CrH2O). Creatine monohydrate is taken in either capsule or powder form and, nowadays, is readily available online and in high street shops (Kreiber, 1998). When did creatine become popular? Creatine first came into the public eye after the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona. Linford Christie, who won the Gold medal in the 100m event, admitted to taking creatine monohydrate supplements during his training program. The International Olympic Committee does not consider creatine an illegal substance so athletes are free to take it. 30% of high school athletes admitted to using it with the figure for both professional and college athletes is higher still. In terms of nutritional supplementation net annual sales of creatine are nearly 500 million dollars in the USA alone (Metzl et al, 2001) making it the most popular ergogenic aid used legally. In 2004, a new form of creatine supplementation was introduced to the market called creatine ethyl ester. This is now a very commonly used form of the supplement. It is said to be beneficial due to increased absorption rates compared with standard creatine monohydrate. However, studies have also shown that there is no advantage to be gained from taking creatine ethyl ester (Figure 2) compared with regular creatine monohydrate supplements (Spillane et al,2009). The study focused on claims that using the revolutionary creatine ethyl ester increases the bio-availability of creatine allowing for greater gains in performace. Subjects were randomly assigned in a double blind fashion to either a creatine ethyl ester group, a creatine monohydrate group or a maltodextrose placebo group. During the investigation both the creatine monohydrate subjects and the creatine ethyl ester subjects observed improvements in both muscle strength and muscle power but there was little difference recorded between the two creatine based groups. The authors were able to conclude that despite claims, creatine ethyl ester provides no benefits, as a sports supplement, compared with creatine monohydrate (Spillane et al,2009) Figure 2 Creatine ethyl ester As can clearly be seen from the diagram the chemical structure of creatine ethyl ester is slightly different to that of creatine. The molecular formula is C6H13N3O2. How to take creatine? Creatine monohydrate is widely available and is usually found in powder or capsule form. Unlike many protein supplements creatine is not usually flavoured and is just mixed with water. When starting to take creatine as a supplement the athlete must first undergo the loading phase which usually lasts no more than a week. This is necessary to elevate intramuscular levels of creatine phosphate and involves taking 5 grams of creatine 4 times a day. Taking 20g a day elevates both free creatine and creatine phosphate levels by between 10 and 30% (McArdle,2009). The short term mass gains experienced by users of creatine are likely to be primarily caused by water retention. Users of creatine should limit their caffeine intake because it is now well known that caffeine counteracts the ergogenic benefits that the substance provides. In 1996 a Belgian study concluded caffeine has the ability to completely eliminate the ergogenic benefit of creatine supplementation (Vandenberghe et al, 1996). Th erefore it is vital that athletes who use creatine limit their caffeine intake to a minimum if not exclude caffeine containing drinks from their diet all together to prevent the impact of the supplement being inhibited. It has also been proven that caffeine intake prolongs muscle relaxation time, therefore opposing the action of the creatine which is able to shorten muscular relaxation time (Hespel,2002). Does creatine possess other benefits? As well as the much documented use of creatine as a sports supplement, the compound is the basis of intense, scientific research with regards to its possible benefits in other areas. Among these is the potential use of creatine to protect against both neurological and atherosclerotic disease. It is thought that creatine administration may be beneficial in treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by increasing muscle mass (Fuld et al, 2005). Creatine supplementation displayed neuroprotective effects in various animal models of both Huntingtons and Parkinsons disease (Wyss and Schulze, 2002) as well as in McArdles disease (Vorgerd et al,2000). Also in this paper, the authors looked into atherosclerotic protection which may be provided by creatine by lowering the concentration, in the blood, of the amino acid homocysteine. Homocysteine has previously been identified as an atherosclerotic risk factor. A 2002 study focused primarily on the effects creatine had on transgenic animal m odels of Huntingtons disease. Again, this study found creatine to be beneficial in that survival rates increased and delayed the development of motor symptoms associated with the condition (Andreassen et al, 2001). Much research has focused on the possibility of creatine supplementation increasing strength and power in neuromuscular disease patients who often suffer with muscular dystrophy (Tarnospolsky and Martin,1999) . Handgrip and body weight, as well as other measures, were taken and showed significant improvement after the course of supplementation. As well as the potential neuroprotective benefits of creatine, research has also taken place to find other advantages of the creatine compound. Sullivan et al, for example found that creatine can help provide protection against traumatic brain injury (Sullivan et al, 2001). However, this evidence was only gathered using transgenic mice models so further and more extensive studies need to be conducted. Animal models were used during the study and post chronic administration of creatine cortical damage to the mice was reduced by as much as 50%. The potential use of creatine as a form of treatment in Huntingdons disease is revolutionary and vitally important. This is because there is no current effective treatment for the condition so all forms of potential therapy must be explored. A study in 2000 looked into whether, by increasing phosphocreatine levels, creatine could be administered to Hutingdons disease sufferers. Although there has been little research into the matter, there is a possibility that creatine supplementation can influence bone biology (Candow and Chilibeck,2010). Resistance training alone has previously shown to be beneficial, especially to the elderly to help reduce bone loss which in turn decreases the likelihood of bone fractures. Long term creatine supplementation, possibly coupled with resistance training may be a future method in helping to maintain bone structure and reduce the risk of falls and injuries (Candow and Chilbeck,2010). As well as this the aging process is also responsible for sarcopenia which is essentially a reduction in muscle mass resulting in decreased muscle function and muscle weakness (Evans,1995) (Tarnopolsky and Safdar,2008). Creatine supplementation, combined with resistance training may be able to reduce muscle wastage and increase muscular hypertrophy (Dalbo et al,2009). This is believed to be due to the activation of satellite cells. These were first discovered in 1961 during microscopic studies of muscle fibre tissue (Mauro,1961). Since then much information has been obtained as to their function. Satellite cells are believed to function as progenitor cells to the myofibre nuclei which are involved in muscle cell growth (Campion,1984). Muscle fibres are not able to divide, so new muscle fibres are formed through the division of satellite cells. This contributes to the ability of skeletal muscle tissue to repair itself following an injury (Martini,2006). Are there any risks to taking creatine in the long term? Despite the various benefits I have described creatine does have its critics. Numerous studies have focused on the worrying link between its use and renal dysfunction or even complete renal failure. In particular a study by Pritchard and Kalra concluded that creatine had been the underlying factor which led to renal dysfunction in their subject (Pritchard and Kalra,1998) . This was thought to be due largely to the fact that creatine is degraded to creatinine prior to excretion in the urine. This led to further studies on the issue but there is still no definitive answer as to whether the use of creatine as a supplement contributes to renal dysfunction. Another study by Thorsteinsdottir et al in 2006 focused on the alarming case of a healthy 24 year old who was diagnosed with acute renal failure while taking several dietary supplements, including creatine monohydrate. For example, a paper by Poortmans and Francaux (1998) looked into the findings from the Pritchard paper by supplementi ng subjects for as long as 5 years. They found no link whatsoever between the use of creatine and impaired renal function. The same paper also found there to be no impact on blood pressure either. Despite this it is generally accepted that those suffering with renal disorders should refrain from the use of the supplement. While use of creatine as a supplement for a period up to 8 weeks has shown no detrimental health effects, further work must be done to investigate any long term health implications which may arise. Studies focusing on creatine supplementation in endurance athletes have sometimes found that taking the substance could actually inhibit performance. This is thought to be due to the weight gain sometimes attributed to the use of creatine (Balsom et al,1994). There have also been numerous links between creatine supplementation and increases in acne, especially among adolescent athletes which could be another factor in a performer choosing to avoid supplementation. Creati ne use has been linked with outbreaks of acne especially among adolescents. A study by Kaymak in 2008 concluded that between 15-20% of subjects treated had high blood plasma levels of creatine phosphokinase. A clinical report by Landau et al in 2001 also produced similar results with up to 51% of patients being treated with isotretinoin having elevated blood creatine kinase levels. As creatine use became more prominent links began to be forged that the person taking the supplement could be more prone to muscular cramping and spasms, particularly during exercise (Poortmans,2000). However, there is also evidence to the contrary. In 2001 a study was carried out using 26 athletes from various sports (Schilling et al, 2001) . Although the authors focused on the long term clinical markers of creatine use they were able to conclude that there was no increased risk of muscular cramping through use of the supplement. These findings were backed up in 2003 when a paper was published following a 3 year study using elite college athletes (Greenwood et al, 2003). The data was collected between 1998 and 2000 and the authors looked into whether creatine use had any affect over the rate of muscular cramping and injury. Their results showed no significant difference between the placebo group and the creatine taking group allowing them to conclude that creatine had no effect over cramping rate. Similiar conclusions were made in a study by Dalbo et al(2008). Although the majority of evidence gathered suggests that using creatine monohydrate as a nutritional supplement does lead to performance improvements in high intensity, short duration exercise there is some evidence to the contrary. A 1995 study concluded that there is no benefit to using creatine during short term, high intensity bicycle riding (Cooke et al,1995). There was no difference between the power output of the control group compared with the group who had taken the supplement. These findings are interesting due to the large amount of research which concluded that creatine supplementation was advantageous during this manner of exercise. Creatine and endurance events Most of the evidence gathered has suggested that creatine is only beneficial in short, power based activities and has no known advantages with regards to endurance events. This is partly thought to be due to the weight gain attributed to creatine supplementation due to water retention. However in 2004 a novel experiment was conducted which investigated the potential use of creatine to reduce inflammatory and muscle soreness markers during a 30km bicycle race (Santos et al,2004) . The markers the scientists measured were creatine kinase (CK), lacate dehydrogenase (LDH), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and tumor necrosis factor alpha. The subjects used were all experienced road runners whose personal best times for a marathon distance ranged from 2.5 to 3 hours. The subjects undertook the standard creatine loading phase, as well as a small dose of maltodextrin, in the fortnight leading up to the race. Maltodextrin is a commonly used food additive that is used in both the creatine subjects and the placebo subjects so there is no difference in the flavour of the compounds taken. Santos et al found that, in their subject s, the markers of muscle soreness were significantly higher in the control group (who took maltodextrine but not creatine) than in those who had taken creatine. This implies that although creatine has not yet to prove any performance benefits during endurance events it may be beneficial in reducing soreness and improving recovery post exercise by reducing cell damage (Santos, R et al, 2004). In this project I will look into the array of benefits creatine can provide as well as investigating its negative aspects. I then hope to conclude in what situations the benefits outweigh the potential risks as well as where the risk factor may be too high to warrant using the substance. Creatine as a sports supplement As I have already mentioned, it is now known that creatine monohydrate supplements work by increasing the total amount of phosphocreatine available to resting muscle cells. During intense exercise this is broken down to its constituent elements (Phosphate and creatine) and the energy released is used to drive the re-synthesis of ATP, the universal energy currency (Kreider, RB, 1998). As only a very small amount (approximately 2g per day) is synthesised naturally by the liver, pancreas and kidneys extra phosphocreatine in the muscle cells serves to reduce fatigue during high intensity, short duration activities like sprinting. A study by Kerksick et al in 2007 investigated the impact of various different protein sources and creatine on the human body following a 12 weeks high intensity resistance program. 49 subjects were used who regularly attended the gym to carry out weight lifting exercises. Some subjects were administered with a colostrum protein blend, which is formed from the mild delivered by cows in the days following giving birth. Other subjects were given colostrums combined with creatine administration. A protein control group was put in place and Kerksick et al predicted that the inclusion of creatine with the colostrums blend would bring about greater improvements in both body composition and power than those taking colostrum alone. The resistance training program led to mass gains for all subjects but the greatest lean mass gains were achieved by those taking a blend of creatine and colostrums protein. However, there was no significant improvement in subjects one repetition maximum on the be nch press between the protein control group, the c colostrum group or the colostrums/creatine group. Due to the increased availability of phosphocreatine it would have been predicted that the colostrum/creatine group would have achieved the greatest improvements in this exercise over the 12 week study. In some cases as little as one week of supplementation can be enough to produce performance improvements (Volek et al,1997). Volek used 14 active, male subjects in a double blind fashion where 7 where unknowingly the placebo group and 7 were administered with oral creatine monohydrate supplement. Bench press and squat jumps were the chosen exercises to measure the effect of creatine on performance. As well as increases in the weight subjects could bench press, and increases in power output for the squat jumps there was also a noticeable increase in lean body mass among the subjects of up to 2.7 kg, possibly due to the water retention attributed to creatine use. Despite all the evidence which has been gathered implying that creatine does play a role in helping enhance ATP resynthesis during short term, high intensity exercises there is some evidence to the contrary. In particular a paper by Cooke et al in 1995 concluded that their subjects had experienced no benefit whatsoever to using the supplement for their high intensity, intermittent bicycle sprints. The authors focused primarily on the power output the subjects were able to exert as well as fatigue levels experienced. 12 healthy yet untrained male subjects were used for the study, 6 of which were the placebo group with the other 6 making up the supplemented group. The supplemented subjects used the loading phase technique to increase the levels of phosphocreatine in resting muscle cells faster, but the phase only lasted for 5 days. This may have been too short a period of time to load them as most manufacturers suggest a 2 week loading phase. However, as I have mentioned Volek et al, 1 997 found performance improvements could occur in as little as a week. Cooke et al found there to be no significant difference between the power output between the two groups, prior to or after the supplementation period. This led the authors to conclude that use of creatine as an ergogenic aid has no positive effect over a persons ability to exert more power in muscular contraction, which opposes much of the evidence gathered in other studies. Creatine and its neuroprotective effects In some studies creatine has demonstrated neuroprotective effects. In some animal models creatine has provided neurological protection against the onset of symptoms in both Parkinsons and Huntingtons disease (Wyss and Schulze,2002). There are three main steps involved in creatine metabolism with one being creatine transporter. The others are, firstly, AGAT which is L-arginine :glycine amidinotransferase. This forms precursors to the creatine molecule itself. Also, GAMT is involved in the biosynthesis of creatine molecules. Deficiency of either AGAT or GAMT leads to a deficiency in both creatine and phosphocreatine in the brain, which can lead to severe mental retardation (Schutz and Stockler, 2007). In the studies carried out by Wyss and Schulze there was a noticeable improvement in clinical symptoms of both AGAT and GAMT deficiencies but there was no change with the creatine transporter disorders. Dechent et al, 1999 also found that oral creatine monohydrate supplementation also inc reased creatine levels in the brain. Furthermore, in transgenic mouse models of Huntingtons disease, creatine administration has shown to improve survival rates, as well as prevent the inevitable onset of symptoms. (Andreassen et al,2001). This was concluded to be via a similar method to how creatine operates as an ergogenic aid, but by increasing phosphocreatine levels in the brain, rather than in muscle cells. A minimal dietary administration, of just 2% creatine was enough to provide positive results in the study and provide neurological protection. Huntingtons disease is often associated with loss in weight and the creatine presence also helped to minimise weight loss in the animal subjects. In 2002 a revolutionary study was carried out by Jacobs et al into the possibility of using oral creatine monohydrate to assist the recovery of patients with spinal cord injuries at the cervical vertebrae level. Sixteen subjects were used for the study who had suffered injuries between the C5 and C7 vertebrae. Results showed that VO2 max, VCO2 max, and time to fatigue were all greater in the supplemented group compared with the placebo group and Jacobs concluded that there is definite benefit in using creatine to assist with training in the rehabilitation of such severe spinal injuries. This again demonstrates the potential uses that creatine supplementation has in providing neurological protection and rehabilitation. Creatine supplementation may also be beneficial in patients suffering with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Rosenfeld, 2008). This is a neurodegenerative progressive disorder which is characterised by muscular dystrophy and can be fatal. An advantage of this trial was the large sample size, which was over 100 subjects. While creatine did not significantly improve motor or respiratory capacity there was a definitive trend toward increased survival rates among the creatine supplemented subject group. Rosenfeld called for further research to be considered into the increases survival rates that were linked to the use of creatine. Creatine and renal failure It has been predicted that a long term nitrogen rich diet lends itself to cause both structural and functional deformities of the kidney and may eventually cause renal hyperfiltration (Poortmans and Francaux,1999). Due to the high nitrogen content of creatine much research has been done into whether there is a long term danger to using the supplement. In 1998 a rather controversial paper was published by Pritchard and Kalra which researched into the possible links between use of creatine as a sports supplement, following the death of 3 American college wrestlers who were taking the substance. The article was published in the Lancet and became the topic of much debate in years to come. Pritchard and Kalra concluded that there was strong circumstantial evidence to suggest that creatine was responsible for the deterioration in renal function (Pritchard and Kalra,1998). The subject suffered with focal segmental glomerulosclerosis but despite this all markers of renal function were normal, such as creatinine clearance values. However, when the 25 year old subject was studied 8 years later creatinine clearance had decreased considerably. The male admitted to using creatine based supplements during a pre season football training program which Pritchard and Kalra felt was an underlying factor in the deterioration in the mans renal functio ning. This paper was a topic for much debate, due largely to the fact that the patient investigated by Pritchard and Kalra had underlying renal issues prior to the study, which the authors seem to ignore in their conclusions. The size of the study is also questionable due to the fact that there was only a sole participant therefore no a repeat or variety in results taken. There were also just 4 references noted at the end of the article suggesting that Pritchard and Kalra may not have taken into full account all other evidence that had been obtained by other studies. Due to the ever increasing popularity of creatine supplementation, along with its continued link with renal failure there have been a vast number of studies in this area. A study by Edmunds et al in 2000 focused on the progression of renal disease in Han:Sprague-Dawley (SPRD) rat models with cystic kidney disease. The rats undertook the loading phase of supplementation which I described in the introduction. This is the same technique used in humans to increase the amount of free phosphocreatine. Obviously, the intake of creatine was reduced, in comparison with humans, to 2g/kg of diet for the one week loading phase, followed by a 5 week period where the dosage administered was 0.4g/kg of diet to compare. The authors measured the progression of renal disease my taking kidney size records as well as determining cyst scores. The cysts often develop in chronic cases where the cysts grow and inhibit the blood filtering capabilities of the organ (Parker,2007).Edmunds hypothesis stated that due to the relatively short life span of the animals used, any impact that creatine supplementation has on renal function could be more readily detected. The findings supported this hypothesis as the rats that had been administered with creatine suffered greater renal disease progression than the control group. The kidney sizes were as much as 10% larger, in some cases, than the control group which is an indicator of further progression of the condition. The creatine was administered in a creatine/glutamine mixture which supplement manufacturers often do as glutamine is believed to significantly improve absorption of creatine. As expected all other markers of renal function agreed with the hypothesis. Creatinine serum clearance was 23% lower in the supplemented group and cyst scored were 23% greater compared with the control group. At the time of Edmunds paper there had still not been a long term controlled study into the effect creatine supplementation may have on renal function. Although the findings seem conclusive I feel it is important to consider that animal models were used as oppose to humans, although this was partially due to the time restrictions. Also the sample sizes are adequate but by no means large with 14 males and just 12 females making up the creatine supplemented groups. As well as this the length of the study is quite short with the supplementing period lasting 6 weeks in total. Therefore it remains unclear as to the long term risks that can be associated with creatine and renal issues. In spite of this, the paper exacerbates the advice that athletes with any form of renal condition should avoid using creatine as an ergogenic aid. In contrast there numerous studies have taken place which have focused on the potential link between creatine and renal disorders and concluded that there is no health risk to taking the substance. In 1999, Poortmans and Francaux conducted a long term study on the issue. This was important because some of the investigations done around this time were short term and didnt account for the potential long term health risks, if creatine were to be taken over a substantial period of time. Poortmans and Francaux refer to the controversial Lancet publication by Pritchard and Kalra in their introduction and used this to form their hypothesis that short and medium term creatine supplementation in men does not have any detrimental e

Compare and Contrast Europe and Africa Essay -- Politics Political Eco

Europe and Africa have been linked together in evaluating the state formation process. Both regions have similarities, strengths, weaknesses, and room for improvement. To this day both regions are far from perfect. Some light can be shed on this subject, by evaluating Europe and Africa’s state formation process, evaluating what party benefits, and briefly explaining two economic consequences of European colonialism in Africa. Problems began for Africa when there was the â€Å"scramble for Africa. Africa was extremely divided throughout the continent. There was no nation intact. Even though they were divided into colonies, they still had no sovereignty. Since they had no form of nationalism it made it impossible to succeed as a nation. This really hurt Africa economically. If they would have been able to come together as a nation they could have pulled all of their assets together and exploit them in order to make money. By not doing this it allowed the government to exploit the people. This is why there are starving people in Africa on television. The states of Africa were created in order to make money by exporting all the various resources, whether it was slaves, minerals, or agriculture. There was much to gain by owning a chunk of land in Africa. This reason being because Africa is so rich in their resources for trade. After the race was over it left Africa severely divided. Africa was divided into a series of seven colonial empires. France and Britain had the... Compare and Contrast Europe and Africa Essay -- Politics Political Eco Europe and Africa have been linked together in evaluating the state formation process. Both regions have similarities, strengths, weaknesses, and room for improvement. To this day both regions are far from perfect. Some light can be shed on this subject, by evaluating Europe and Africa’s state formation process, evaluating what party benefits, and briefly explaining two economic consequences of European colonialism in Africa. Problems began for Africa when there was the â€Å"scramble for Africa. Africa was extremely divided throughout the continent. There was no nation intact. Even though they were divided into colonies, they still had no sovereignty. Since they had no form of nationalism it made it impossible to succeed as a nation. This really hurt Africa economically. If they would have been able to come together as a nation they could have pulled all of their assets together and exploit them in order to make money. By not doing this it allowed the government to exploit the people. This is why there are starving people in Africa on television. The states of Africa were created in order to make money by exporting all the various resources, whether it was slaves, minerals, or agriculture. There was much to gain by owning a chunk of land in Africa. This reason being because Africa is so rich in their resources for trade. After the race was over it left Africa severely divided. Africa was divided into a series of seven colonial empires. France and Britain had the...

Language Essay Essay

Introduction Language is universal way to express how a person feels. So of course, it is essential in cultures to express their individuality within life. Most of the time people do not put a lot of speculation on what mental processes may be taking place subconsciously. These mental processes allow a person to think, speak, and express their personal thoughts through language. In order to properly analyze that language, cognition must be a part of the mental processes too. In this essay, we will delve deeper into how language and cognition are associated. Language & Lexicon Language is an efficient and consequential use of information, which can be both comprehended and used by all living things. It is also the communication of thoughts to language. According to Merriam-Webster (2014), cognitive psychology can be defined as, â€Å"a branch of psychology concerned with mental processes (as perception, thinking, learning, and memory) especially with respect to the internal events occurring between sensory stimulation and the overt expression of behavior.† Accordingly, when a person or animal learns to understand through the use of language, and with the capacity of that language, there can be a cognitive process that helps to separate humans from animals. Language is completely generative, dynamic, structured, and communicative. In language, a lexicon is known as the vocabulary or psychological language. A lexicon can hold many different types of words, which can also include how to pronounce a word, and the parts of speech for each word (Galotti, 2014). A lexicon is used to help a person understand words that are spoken, and their meanings. The spoken words are compared to a person’s lexicon, which is how a person can understand what the word is. It could be near impossible to understand a language or vocabulary without lexicons. The use of lexicons are a very important part of a person’s language. Key Features of Language There are many key features that make a language. The following are the main properties: generative, communicative, dynamic, and structured. Language is considered generative because, a person has an unlimited capacity as to how they build their personal languages. Language allows people to communicate with one another, and it also allows other animals to communicate within the same species as well. Language is dynamic because it is forever changing, and also develops people into having larger vocabularies. Lastly, the structure of language plainly shows exactly how convoluted it truly is. The great thing about language, is that it can adapt and expand as a person learns more information. New words can be added to a language or vocabulary, while others can be erased or updated (Galotti, 2014). Language development is different for each person. Some people are able to learn language through their cognitive functions, but sometimes, it takes more time. For an example, with children, they have to learn everything, which includes their own names, how they are feeling, how to express feeling, and objects. But they also have to learn how to use the vocabulary they are learning. Lastly, the feature that influences more cognitive processes, mainly languages that can influence thoughts. It works in a rotating structure, language helps to influence thoughts, and language also helps to regulates thoughts. A person always uses language in order to interpret their own thoughts. The main reason that language influences thought is because thoughts are when a person is consciously speaking to themselves. Levels of Language There are four different levels of language in reference to the structure and processing, phonemes, words, sentences, and texts. Phonemes are the tiniest part of sounds or units that can be used by people in order to form words. Phonemes are a person’s sounds of speech, which is similar to each letter in the alphabet. The main dilemma with phonemes are that each person’s creation of them are different. When a person studies phonetics, they are studying speech sounds and their physical properties. Words help a  person make sense of phonemes. Words are made up of by multiple spoken sounds. A sentence is, of course, a set of words which complete themselves. A sentence will also allow a person to organize their thoughts when they are preparing to speak, or to write something. A text helps a person connect sentences in order to form a small amount of information, or a paragraph. These usually help to explain a specific topic, and always have to be about one topic. All four of these structures are a crucial part of language. To put this more easily, phonemes lead to words, words lead to sentences, and sentences lead to texts (Galotti, 2014). Analyzing the Role: Language Process & Cognitive Psychology In order to properly analyze the role of processing language, a person has to first understand cognitive psychology, to study mental processes. Mental processes give a person the ability to think, believe, perceive, solve problems, make decisions, remember, learn, reason, and adapt. By using these mental processes a person can begin to understand and comprehend language, and with that, the process of the language is used. If a person does not understand the language’s structure, that person will not have the capability to understand texts, sentences, words or phonemes, which all make up a language. With lack of perceptive abilities, a person may not comprehend language, with all of its entirety. Cognitive processes help determine how the language is processed within the brain. When a person begins to learn and understand language, the cognitive process is in use. Conclusion The cognitive process known as language drives a separation in between humans and other beings. The lexicon contains words in which people can use to compare other words or parts of speech. There are multiple key features of language. These key features, as stated above are, generative, communicative, dynamic, and structured. With all of these features, language can become very intricate. If a person were to completely understand each one of these key features, they will be able to understand and comprehend how necessary they are to be used within language. Also, it is crucial for a person to analyze the role that cognitive psychology plays within the process of language. Cognitive psychology is important in many aspects of a  person’s life, but especially in the language process. References: Cognitive Psychology. (2014). In Merriam-Webster. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/cognitive%20psychology Galotti, K. M. (2014). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.